To convince a verifier that a prover knows some secret without revealing the actual secret, a zero-knowledge proof of knowledge can be used. This requires to follow special sigma protocols which include some (three-move) interactions between the verifier and the prover where the prover makes a commitment and the verifier answers with some random challenge the prover needs to respond to.
The respective implementations of the homomorphic ElGamal cryptosystem using distributed keys and non-interactive zero-knowledge proofs of knowledge can be found here: [Finite Fields](src/ff-elgamal) and [Elliptic Curves](src/ec-elgamal)
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 51.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 51.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 51.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 51.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 51.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 51.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 48.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 48.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 47.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 47.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 45.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Duplicated code can lead to software that is hard to understand and difficult to change. The Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle states:
Every piece of knowledge must have a single, unambiguous, authoritative representation within a system.
When you violate DRY, bugs and maintenance problems are sure to follow. Duplicated code has a tendency to both continue to replicate and also to diverge (leaving bugs as two similar implementations differ in subtle ways).
Tuning
This issue has a mass of 45.
We set useful threshold defaults for the languages we support but you may want to adjust these settings based on your project guidelines.
The threshold configuration represents the minimum mass a code block must have to be analyzed for duplication. The lower the threshold, the more fine-grained the comparison.
If the engine is too easily reporting duplication, try raising the threshold. If you suspect that the engine isn't catching enough duplication, try lowering the threshold. The best setting tends to differ from language to language.
Cognitive Complexity is a measure of how difficult a unit of code is to intuitively understand. Unlike Cyclomatic Complexity, which determines how difficult your code will be to test, Cognitive Complexity tells you how difficult your code will be to read and comprehend.
A method's cognitive complexity is based on a few simple rules:
Code is not considered more complex when it uses shorthand that the language provides for collapsing multiple statements into one
Code is considered more complex for each "break in the linear flow of the code"
Code is considered more complex when "flow breaking structures are nested"
This rule is triggered when there are lines that are longer than the
configured line length (default: 80 characters). To fix this, split the line
up into multiple lines.
This rule has an exception where there is no whitespace beyond the configured
line length. This allows you to still include items such as long URLs without
being forced to break them in the middle.
You also have the option to exclude this rule for code blocks and tables. To
do this, set the code_blocks and/or tables parameters to false.
Code blocks are included in this rule by default since it is often a
requirement for document readability, and tentatively compatible with code
rules. Still, some languages do not lend themselves to short lines.
This rule is triggered when there are lines that are longer than the
configured line length (default: 80 characters). To fix this, split the line
up into multiple lines.
This rule has an exception where there is no whitespace beyond the configured
line length. This allows you to still include items such as long URLs without
being forced to break them in the middle.
You also have the option to exclude this rule for code blocks and tables. To
do this, set the code_blocks and/or tables parameters to false.
Code blocks are included in this rule by default since it is often a
requirement for document readability, and tentatively compatible with code
rules. Still, some languages do not lend themselves to short lines.
This rule is triggered on ordered lists that do not either start with '1.' or
do not have a prefix that increases in numerical order (depending on the
configured style, which defaults to 'one').
Example valid list if the style is configured as 'one':
1. Do this.
1. Do that.
1. Done.
Example valid list if the style is configured as 'ordered':
This rule is triggered on ordered lists that do not either start with '1.' or
do not have a prefix that increases in numerical order (depending on the
configured style, which defaults to 'one').
Example valid list if the style is configured as 'one':
1. Do this.
1. Do that.
1. Done.
Example valid list if the style is configured as 'ordered':
1. Do this.
2. Do that.
3. Done.
Double quote to prevent globbing and word splitting.
Problematic code:
echo$1
foriin$*;do:;done# this done and the next one also applies to expanding arrays.
foriin$@;do:;done
Correct code:
echo"$1"
foriin"$@";do:;done# or, 'for i; do'
Rationale
The first code looks like "print the first argument". It's actually "Split the first argument by IFS (spaces, tabs and line feeds). Expand each of them as if it was a glob. Join all the resulting strings and filenames with spaces. Print the result."
The second one looks like "iterate through all arguments". It's actually "join all the arguments by the first character of IFS (space), split them by IFS and expand each of them as globs, and iterate on the resulting list". The third one skips the joining part.
Quoting variables prevents word splitting and glob expansion, and prevents the script from breaking when input contains spaces, line feeds, glob characters and such.
Strictly speaking, only expansions themselves need to be quoted, but for stylistic reasons, entire arguments with multiple variable and literal parts are often quoted as one:
When quoting composite arguments, make sure to exclude globs and brace expansions, which lose their special meaning in double quotes: "$HOME/$dir/src/*.c" will not expand, but "$HOME/$dir/src"/*.c will.
Note that $( ) starts a new context, and variables in it have to be quoted independently:
echo"This $variable is quoted $(but this $variable is not)"
echo"This $variable is quoted $(and now this "$variable" is too)"
Exceptions
Sometimes you want to split on spaces, like when building a command line:
options="-j 5 -B"
make$optionsfile
Just quoting this doesn't work. Instead, you should have used an array (bash, ksh, zsh):
options=(-j 5 -B)# ksh: set -A options -- -j 5 -B
make"${options[@]}"file
or a function (POSIX):
make_with_flags(){make-j5-B"$@";}
make_with_flags file
To split on spaces but not perform glob expansion, Posix has a set -f to disable globbing. You can disable word splitting by setting IFS=''.
Similarly, you might want an optional argument:
debug=""
[[$1=="--trace-commands"]]&&debug="-x"
bash$debug script
Quoting this doesn't work, since in the default case, "$debug" would expand to one empty argument while $debug would expand into zero arguments. In this case, you can use an array with zero or one elements as outlined above, or you can use an unquoted expansion with an alternate value:
debug=""
[[$1=="--trace-commands"]]&&debug="yes"
bash${debug:+"-x"} script
This is better than an unquoted value because the alternative value can be properly quoted, e.g. wget ${output:+ -o "$output"}.
As always, this warning can be [[ignore]]d on a case-by-case basis.
this is especially relevant when BASH many not be available for the array work around.
For example, use in eval or in command options where script has total control of the variables...
Enforces consistent semicolon usage at the end of every statement.
Notes
Has Fix
Config
One of the following arguments must be provided:
"always" enforces semicolons at the end of every statement.
"never" disallows semicolons at the end of every statement except for when they are necessary.
The following arguments may be optionally provided:
"ignore-interfaces" skips checking semicolons at the end of interface members.
"ignore-bound-class-methods" skips checking semicolons at the end of bound class methods.
"strict-bound-class-methods" disables any special handling of bound class methods and treats them as any
other assignment. This option overrides "ignore-bound-class-methods".
Enforces consistent semicolon usage at the end of every statement.
Notes
Has Fix
Config
One of the following arguments must be provided:
"always" enforces semicolons at the end of every statement.
"never" disallows semicolons at the end of every statement except for when they are necessary.
The following arguments may be optionally provided:
"ignore-interfaces" skips checking semicolons at the end of interface members.
"ignore-bound-class-methods" skips checking semicolons at the end of bound class methods.
"strict-bound-class-methods" disables any special handling of bound class methods and treats them as any
other assignment. This option overrides "ignore-bound-class-methods".