README.md
# RDF.rb: Linked Data for Ruby
This is a pure-Ruby library for working with [Resource Description Framework
(RDF)][RDF] data.
* <https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf>
[](https://badge.fury.io/rb/rdf)
[](https://github.com/ruby-rdf/rdf/actions?query=workflow%3ACI)
[](https://coveralls.io/github/ruby-rdf/rdf?branch=develop)
[](https://gitter.im/ruby-rdf/rdf)
## Table of contents
1. [Features](#features)
2. [Differences between RDF 1.0 and RDF 1.1](#differences-between-rdf-1-0-and-rdf-1-1)
3. [Differences between RDF 1.1 and RDF 1.2](#differences-between-rdf-1-1-and-rdf-1-2)
4. [Tutorials](#tutorials)
5. [Command Line](#command-line)
6. [Examples](#examples)
7. [Reader/Writer convenience methods](#reader/writer-convenience-methods)
8. [RDF 1.2](#rdf\_12)
9. [Documentation](#documentation)
10. [Dependencies](#dependencies)
11. [Installation](#installation)
12. [Download](#download)
13. [Resources](#resources)
14. [Mailing List](#mailing-list)
15. [Authors](#authors)
16. [Contributors](#contributors)
17. [Contributing](#contributing)
18. [License](#license)
## Features
* 100% pure Ruby with minimal dependencies and no bloat.
* Fully compatible with [RDF 1.1][] specifications.
* Provisional support for [RDF 1.2][] specifications.
* 100% free and unencumbered [public domain](https://unlicense.org/) software.
* Provides a clean, well-designed RDF object model and related APIs.
* Supports parsing and serializing [N-Triples][] and [N-Quads][] out of the box, with more
serialization format support available through add-on extensions.
* Includes in-memory graph and repository implementations, with more storage
adapter support available through add-on extensions.
* Implements basic graph pattern (BGP) query evaluation.
* Plays nice with others: entirely contained in the `RDF` module, and does
not modify any of Ruby's core classes or standard library.
* Based entirely on Ruby's autoloading, meaning that you can generally make
use of any one part of the library without needing to load up the rest.
* Compatible with Ruby Ruby >= 3.0, Rubinius and JRuby 9.0+.
* Note, changes in mapping hashes to keyword arguments for Ruby 3+ may require that arguments be passed more explicitly, especially when the first argument is a Hash and there are optional keyword arguments. In this case, Hash argument may need to be explicitly included within `{}` and the optional keyword arguments may need to be specified using `**{}` if there are no keyword arguments.
* Performs auto-detection of input to select appropriate Reader class if one
cannot be determined from file characteristics.
### HTTP requests
RDF.rb uses `Net::HTTP` for retrieving HTTP and HTTPS resources. If the
[RestClient][] gem is included, that will be used instead to retrieve remote
resources. Clients may also consider using [RestClient Components][] to enable
client-side caching of HTTP results using [Rack::Cache][] or other Rack
middleware.
See {RDF::Util::File} for configuring other mechanisms for retrieving resources.
### Term caching and configuration
RDF.rb uses a weak-reference cache for storing internalized versions of URIs and Nodes. This is particularly useful for Nodes as two nodes are equivalent only if they're the same node.
By default, each cache can grow to an unlimited size, but this can be configured using {RDF.config}, for general limits, along with URI- or Node-specific limits.
For example, to limit the size of the URI intern cache only:
RDF.config.uri_cache_size = 10_000
The default for creating new caches without a specific initialization size can be set using:
RDF.config.cache_size = 100_000
## Differences between RDF 1.0 and RDF 1.1
This version of RDF.rb is fully compatible with [RDF 1.1][], but it creates some
marginal incompatibilities with [RDF 1.0][], as implemented in versions prior to
the 1.1 release of RDF.rb:
* Introduces {RDF::IRI}, as a synonym for {RDF::URI} either {RDF::IRI} or {RDF::URI} can be used interchangeably. Versions of RDF.rb prior to the 1.1 release were already compatible with IRIs. Internationalized Resource Identifiers (see [RFC3987][]) are a super-set of URIs (see [RFC3986][]) which allow for characters other than standard US-ASCII.
* {RDF::URI} no longer uses the `Addressable` gem. As URIs typically don't need to be parsed, this provides a substantial performance improvement when enumerating or querying graphs and repositories.
* {RDF::List} no longer emits a `rdf:List` type. However, it will now recognize any subjects that are {RDF::Node} instances as being list elements, as long as they have both `rdf:first` and `rdf:rest` predicates.
* {RDF::Graph} adding a `graph_name` to a graph may only be done when the underlying storage model supports graph_names (the default {RDF::Repository} does). The notion of `graph_name` in RDF.rb is treated equivalently to [Named Graphs](https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf11-concepts/#dfn-named-graph) within an RDF Dataset, and graphs on their own are not named.
* {RDF::Graph}, {RDF::Statement} and {RDF::List} now include {RDF::Value}, and not {RDF::Resource}. Made it clear that using {RDF::Graph} does not mean that it may be used within an {RDF::Statement}, for this see {RDF::Term}.
* {RDF::Statement} now is stricter about checking that all elements are valid when validating.
* {RDF::NTriples::Writer} and {RDF::NQuads::Writer} now default to validate output, only allowing valid statements to be emitted. This may disabled by setting the `:validate` option to `false`.
* {RDF::Dataset} is introduced as a class alias of {RDF::Repository}. This allows closer alignment to the RDF concept of [Dataset](https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf11-concepts/#dfn-dataset).
* The `graph_name` of a graph within a Dataset or Repository may be either an {RDF::IRI} or {RDF::Node}. Implementations of repositories may restrict this to being only {RDF::IRI}.
* There are substantial and somewhat incompatible changes to {RDF::Literal}. In [RDF 1.1][], all literals are typed, including plain literals and language tagged literals. Internally, plain literals are given the `xsd:string` datatype and language tagged literals are given the `rdf:langString` datatype. Creating a plain literal, without a datatype or language, will automatically provide the `xsd:string` datatype; similar for language tagged literals. Note that most serialization formats will remove this datatype. Code which depends on a literal having the `xsd:string` datatype being different from a plain literal (formally, without a datatype) may break. However note that the `#has\_datatype?` will continue to return `false` for plain or language-tagged literals.
* {RDF::Query#execute} now accepts a block and returns {RDF::Query::Solutions}. This allows `enumerable.query(query)` to behave like `query.execute(enumerable)` and either return an enumerable or yield each solution.
* {RDF::Queryable#query} now returns {RDF::Query::Solutions} instead of an Enumerator if it's argument is an {RDF::Query}.
* {RDF::Util::File.open\_file} now performs redirects and manages `base_uri` based on W3C recommendations:
* `base_uri` is set to the original URI if a status 303 is provided, otherwise any other redirect will set `base_uri` to the redirected location.
* `base_uri` is set to the content of the `Location` header if status is _success_.
* Additionally, {RDF::Util::File.open\_file} sets the result encoding from `charset` if provided, defaulting to `UTF-8`. Other access methods include `last_modified` and `content_type`,
* {RDF::StrictVocabulary} added with an easy way to keep vocabulary definitions up to date based on their OWL or RDFS definitions. Most vocabularies are now StrictVocabularies meaning that an attempt to resolve a particular term in that vocabulary will error if the term is not defined in the vocabulary.
* New vocabulary definitions have been added for [ICal](http://www.w3.org/2002/12/cal/icaltzd#), [Media Annotations (MA)](http://www.w3.org/ns/ma-ont#), [Facebook OpenGraph (OG)](http://ogp.me/ns#), [PROV](http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#), [SKOS-XL (SKOSXL)](http://www.w3.org/2008/05/skos-xl#), [Data Vocabulary (V)](http://rdf.data-vocabulary.org/), [VCard](http://www.w3.org/2006/vcard/ns#), [VOID](http://rdfs.org/ns/void#http://rdfs.org/ns/void#), [Powder-S (WDRS)](http://www.w3.org/2007/05/powder-s#), and [XHV](http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml/vocab#).
Notably, {RDF::Queryable#query} and {RDF::Query#execute} are now completely symmetric; this allows an implementation of {RDF::Queryable} to optimize queries using implementation-specific logic, allowing for substantial performance improvements when executing BGP queries.
## Differences between RDF 1.1 and RDF 1.2
* {RDF::Literal} has an optional `direction` property for directional language-tagged strings.
* Removes support for legacy `text/plain` (as an alias for `application/n-triples`) and `text/x-nquads` (as an alias for `application/n-quads`)
## Tutorials
* [Getting data from the Semantic Web using Ruby and RDF.rb](https://semanticweb.org/wiki/Getting_data_from_the_Semantic_Web_%28Ruby%29)
* [Using RDF.rb and Spira to process RDF data from the British Ordnance Survey](https://stephenpope.co.uk/?p=85)
* [Getting started with RDF and SPARQL using 4store and RDF.rb](https://www.jenitennison.com/blog/node/152)
## Command Line
When installed, RDF.rb includes a `rdf` shell script which acts as a wrapper to perform a number of different
operations on RDF files using available readers and writers.
* `count`: Parse and RDF input and count the number of statements.
* `predicates`: Returns unique objects from parsed input.
* `objects`: Returns unique objects from parsed input.
* `serialize`: Parse an RDF input and re-serializing to [N-Triples][] or another available format using `--output-format` option.
* `subjects`: Returns unique subjects from parsed input.
The `serialize` command can also be used to serialize as a vocabulary.
Different RDF gems will augment the `rdf` script with more capabilities, which may require specifying the appropriate `--input-format` option to revel.
## Examples
require 'rdf'
include RDF
### Writing RDF data using the [N-Triples][] format
require 'rdf/ntriples'
graph = RDF::Graph.new << [:hello, RDF::RDFS.label, "Hello, world!"]
graph.dump(:ntriples)
or
RDF::Writer.open("hello.nt") { |writer| writer << graph }
### Reading RDF data in the [N-Triples][] format
require 'rdf/ntriples'
graph = RDF::Graph.load("https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf/etc/doap.nt")
or
RDF::Reader.open("https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf/etc/doap.nt") do |reader|
reader.each_statement do |statement|
puts statement.inspect
end
end
### Reading RDF data in other formats
{RDF::Reader.open} and {RDF::Repository.load} use a number of mechanisms to determine the appropriate reader
to use when loading a file. The specific format to use can be forced using, e.g. `format: :ntriples`
option where the specific format symbol is determined by the available readers. Both also use
MimeType or file extension, where available.
require 'rdf/nquads'
graph = RDF::Graph.load("https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf/etc/doap.nq", format: :nquads)
A specific sub-type of Reader can also be invoked directly:
require 'rdf/nquads'
RDF::NQuads::Reader.open("https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf/etc/doap.nq") do |reader|
reader.each_statement do |statement|
puts statement.inspect
end
end
Reader/Writer implementations may override {RDF::Format.detect}, which takes a small sample if input
and return a boolean indicating if it matches that specific format. In the case that a format cannot
be detected from filename or other options, or that more than one format is identified,
{RDF::Format.for} will query each loaded format by invoking it's `detect` method, and the first successful
match will be used to read the input.
### Writing RDF data using other formats
{RDF::Writer.open}, {RDF::Enumerable#dump}, {RDF::Writer.dump} take similar options to {RDF::Reader.open} to determine the
appropriate writer to use.
require 'linkeddata'
RDF::Writer.open("hello.nq", format: :nquads) do |writer|
writer << RDF::Repository.new do |repo|
repo << RDF::Statement.new(:hello, RDF::RDFS.label, "Hello, world!", graph_name: RDF::URI("http://example/graph_name"))
end
end
A specific sub-type of Writer can also be invoked directly:
require 'rdf/nquads'
repo = RDF::Repository.new << RDF::Statement.new(:hello, RDF::RDFS.label, "Hello, world!", graph_name: RDF::URI("http://example/graph_name"))
File.open("hello.nq", "w") {|f| f << repo.dump(:nquads)}
## Reader/Writer convenience methods
{RDF::Enumerable} implements `to_{format}` for each available instance of {RDF::Reader}.
For example, if `rdf/turtle` is loaded, this allows the following:
graph = RDF::Graph.new << [:hello, RDF::RDFS.label, "Hello, world!"]
graph.to_ttl
Similarly, {RDF::Mutable} implements `from_{format}` for each available instance
of {RDF::Writer}. For example:
graph = RDF::Graph.new
graph.from_ttl("[ a <http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#Resource>]")
Note that no prefixes are loaded automatically, however they can be provided as arguments:
graph.from_ttl("[ a rdf:Resource]", prefixes: {rdf: RDF.to_uri})
### Querying RDF data using basic graph patterns (BGPs)
require 'rdf/ntriples'
graph = RDF::Graph.load("https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf/etc/doap.nt")
query = RDF::Query.new({
person: {
RDF.type => FOAF.Person,
FOAF.name => :name,
FOAF.mbox => :email,
}
}, **{})
query.execute(graph) do |solution|
puts "name=#{solution.name} email=#{solution.email}"
end
The same query may also be run from the graph:
graph.query(query) do |solution|
puts "name=#{solution.name} email=#{solution.email}"
end
In general, querying from using the `queryable` instance allows a specific implementation of `queryable` to perform query optimizations specific to the datastore on which it is based.
A separate [SPARQL][SPARQL doc] gem builds on basic BGP support to provide full support for [SPARQL 1.1][] queries.
### Using pre-defined RDF vocabularies
DC.title #=> RDF::URI("http://purl.org/dc/terms/title")
FOAF.knows #=> RDF::URI("http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/knows")
RDF.type #=> RDF::URI("http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#type")
RDFS.seeAlso #=> RDF::URI("http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#seeAlso")
RSS.title #=> RDF::URI("http://purl.org/rss/1.0/title")
OWL.sameAs #=> RDF::URI("http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#sameAs")
XSD.dateTime #=> RDF::URI("http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime")
### Using ad-hoc RDF vocabularies
foaf = RDF::Vocabulary.new("http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/")
foaf.knows #=> RDF::URI("http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/knows")
foaf[:name] #=> RDF::URI("http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/name")
foaf['mbox'] #=> RDF::URI("http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/mbox")
## RDF 1.2
[RDF.rb][] includes provisional support for [RDF 1.2][] with an N-Triples/N-Quads syntax for quoted triples in the _subject_ or _object_ position.
[RDF.rb][] includes provisional support for [RDF 1.2][] directional language-tagged strings, which are literals of type `rdf:dirLangString` having both a `language` and `direction`.
Internally, an `RDF::Statement` is treated as another resource, along with `RDF::URI` and `RDF::Node`, which allows an `RDF::Statement` to have a `#subject` or `#object` which is also an `RDF::Statement`.
**Note: This feature is subject to change or elimination as the standards process progresses.**
### Serializing a Graph containing quoted triples
require 'rdf/ntriples'
statement = RDF::Statement(RDF::URI('bob'), RDF::Vocab::FOAF.age, RDF::Literal(23))
graph = RDF::Graph.new << [statement, RDF::URI("ex:certainty"), RDF::Literal(0.9)]
graph.dump(:ntriples, validate: false)
# => '<<<bob> <http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/age> "23"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#integer>>> <ex:certainty> "0.9"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#double> .'
### Reading a Graph containing quoted triples
By default, the N-Triples reader will reject a document containing a subject resource.
nt = '<<<bob> <http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/age> "23"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#integer>>> <ex:certainty> "0.9"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#double> .'
graph = RDF::Graph.new do |graph|
RDF::NTriples::Reader.new(nt) {|reader| graph << reader}
end
# => RDF::ReaderError
## Documentation
<https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf>
### RDF Object Model
* {RDF::Value}
* {RDF::Term}
* {RDF::Literal}
* {RDF::Literal::Boolean}
* {RDF::Literal::Date}
* {RDF::Literal::DateTime}
* {RDF::Literal::Decimal}
* {RDF::Literal::Double}
* {RDF::Literal::Integer}
* {RDF::Literal::Time}
* [RDF::XSD](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-xsd) (extension)
* {RDF::Resource}
* {RDF::Node}
* {RDF::URI}
* {RDF::List}
* {RDF::Graph}
* {RDF::Statement}
### RDF Serialization
* {RDF::Format}
* {RDF::Reader}
* {RDF::Writer}
### RDF Serialization Formats
The following is a partial list of RDF formats implemented either natively, or through the inclusion of
other gems:
* {RDF::NTriples}
* {RDF::NQuads}
* [JSON::LD][] (extension)
* [RDF::JSON][] (extension)
* [RDF::Microdata][] (extension)
* [RDF::N3][] (extension)
* [RDF::Raptor::RDFXML](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-raptor) (extension)
* [RDF::Raptor::Turtle](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-raptor) (extension)
* [RDF::RDFa][] (extension)
* [RDF::RDFXML][] (extension)
* [RDF::TriG][] (extension)
* [RDF::TriX][] (extension)
* [RDF::Turtle][] (extension)
The meta-gem [LinkedData][LinkedData doc] includes many of these gems.
### RDF Datatypes
RDF.rb only implements core datatypes from the
[RDF Datatype Map](https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf11-concepts/#datatype-maps). Most other
XSD and RDF datatype implementations can be find in the following:
* {RDF::XSD}
### Graph Isomorphism
Two graphs may be compared with each other to determine if they are _isomorphic_.
As BNodes within two different graphs are no equal, graphs may not be directly compared.
The `RDF::Isomorphic` gem may be used to determine if they make the same statements, aside
from BNode identity (i.e., they each entail the other)
* `RDF::Isomorphic`
### RDF Storage
* {RDF::Repository}
* {RDF::Countable}
* {RDF::Enumerable}
* {RDF::Indexable}
* {RDF::Queryable}
* {RDF::Mutable}
* {RDF::Durable}
* {RDF::Transaction}
* [RDF::AllegroGraph](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-agraph) (extension)
* [RDF::Mongo](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-mongo) (extension)
* [RDF::DataObjects](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-do) (extension)
* [RDF::Sesame](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-sesame) (extension)
### RDF Querying
* {RDF::Query}
* {RDF::Query::HashPatternNormalizer}
* {RDF::Query::Pattern}
* {RDF::Query::Solution}
* {RDF::Query::Solutions}
* {RDF::Query::Variable}
* [SPARQL](https://ruby-rdf.github.io/sparql) (extension)
### RDF Vocabularies
* {RDF} - Resource Description Framework (RDF)
* {RDF::OWL} - Web Ontology Language (OWL)
* {RDF::RDFS} - RDF Schema (RDFS)
* {RDF::RDFV} - RDF Vocabulary (RDFV)
* {RDF::XSD} - XML Schema (XSD)
## Dependencies
* [Ruby](https://ruby-lang.org/) (>= 3.0)
* [LinkHeader][] (>= 0.0.8)
* [bcp47_spec][] ( ~> 0.2)
* Soft dependency on [RestClient][] (>= 2.1)
## Installation
The recommended installation method is via [RubyGems](https://rubygems.org/).
To install the latest official release of RDF.rb, do:
% [sudo] gem install rdf # Ruby 3+
## Download
To get a local working copy of the development repository, do:
% git clone git://github.com/ruby-rdf/rdf.git
Alternatively, download the latest development version as a tarball as
follows:
% wget https://github.com/ruby-rdf/rdf/tarball/master
## Resources
* <https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf>
* <https://github.com/ruby-rdf/rdf>
* <https://rubygems.org/gems/rdf>
* <https://www.ohloh.net/p/rdf>
## Mailing List
* <https://lists.w3.org/Archives/Public/public-rdf-ruby/>
## Authors
* [Arto Bendiken](https://github.com/artob) - <https://ar.to/>
* [Ben Lavender](https://github.com/bhuga) - <https://bhuga.net/>
* [Gregg Kellogg](https://github.com/gkellogg) - <https://greggkellogg.net/>
## Contributors
* [Călin Ardelean](https://github.com/clnx) - <https://github.com/clnx>
* [Mark Borkum](https://github.com/markborkum) - <https://github.com/markborkum>
* [Danny Gagne](https://github.com/danny) - <http://www.dannygagne.com/>
* [Joey Geiger](https://github.com/jgeiger) - <https://github.com/jgeiger>
* [Fumihiro Kato](https://github.com/fumi) - <https://fumi.me/>
* [Naoki Kawamukai](https://github.com/kna) - <https://github.com/kna>
* [Tom Nixon](https://github.com/tomjnixon) - <https://github.com/tomjnixon>
* [Hellekin O. Wolf](https://github.com/hellekin) - <https://hellekin.cepheide.org/>
* [John Fieber](https://github.com/jfieber) - <https://github.com/jfieber>
* [Keita Urashima](https://github.com/ursm) - <https://ursm.jp/>
* [Pius Uzamere](https://github.com/pius) - <http://pius.me/>
* [Judson Lester](https://github.com/nyarly) - <https://github.com/nyarly>
* [Peter Vandenabeele](https://github.com/petervandenabeele) - <https://github.com/petervandenabeele>
* [Tom Johnson](https://github.com/no-reply) - <https://github.com/no-reply>
## Contributing
This repository uses [Git Flow](https://github.com/nvie/gitflow) to mange development and release activity. All submissions _must_ be on a feature branch based on the _develop_ branch to ease staging and integration.
* Do your best to adhere to the existing coding conventions and idioms.
* Don't use hard tabs, and don't leave trailing whitespace on any line.
Before committing, run `git diff --check` to make sure of this.
* Do document every method you add using [YARD][] annotations. Read the
[tutorial][YARD-GS] or just look at the existing code for examples.
* Don't touch the `.gemspec` or `VERSION` files. If you need to change them,
do so on your private branch only.
* Do feel free to add yourself to the `CREDITS` file and the
corresponding list in the the `README`. Alphabetical order applies.
* Don't touch the `AUTHORS` file. If your contributions are significant
enough, be assured we will eventually add you in there.
* Do note that in order for us to merge any non-trivial changes (as a rule
of thumb, additions larger than about 15 lines of code), we need an
explicit [public domain dedication][PDD] on record from you,
which you will be asked to agree to on the first commit to a repo within the organization.
Note that the agreement applies to all repos in the [Ruby RDF](https://github.com/ruby-rdf/) organization.
## License
This is free and unencumbered public domain software. For more information,
see <https://unlicense.org/> or the accompanying {file:UNLICENSE} file.
[RDF]: https://www.w3.org/RDF/
[LinkHeader]: https://github.com/asplake/link_header
[bcp47_spec]: https://github.com/dadah89/bcp47_spec
[N-Triples]: https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-n-triples/
[N-Quads]: https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-n-quads/
[YARD]: https://yardoc.org/
[YARD-GS]: https://rubydoc.info/docs/yard/file/docs/GettingStarted.md
[PDD]: https://unlicense.org/#unlicensing-contributions
[JSONLD doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/json-ld
[LinkedData doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/linkeddata
[Microdata doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-microdata
[N3 doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-n3
[RDFa doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-rdfa
[RDFXML doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-rdfxml
[Turtle doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-turtle
[SPARQL doc]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/sparql
[RDF 1.0]: https://www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-rdf-concepts-20040210/
[RDF 1.1]: https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf11-concepts/
[RDF 1.2]: https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf12-concepts/
[SPARQL 1.1]: https://www.w3.org/TR/sparql11-query/
[RDF.rb]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/
[RDF::DO]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-do
[RDF::Mongo]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-mongo
[RDF::Sesame]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-sesame
[RDF::JSON]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-json
[RDF::Microdata]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-microdata
[RDF::N3]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-n3
[RDF::RDFa]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-rdfa
[RDF::RDFXML]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-rdfxml
[RDF::TriG]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-trig
[RDF::TriX]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-trix
[RDF::Turtle]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-turtle
[RDF::Raptor]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/rdf-raptor
[LinkedData]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/linkeddata
[JSON::LD]: https://ruby-rdf.github.io/json-ld
[RestClient]: https://rubygems.org/gems/rest-client
[RestClient Components]: https://rubygems.org/gems/rest-client-components
[Rack::Cache]: https://rtomayko.github.io/rack-cache/